apparent absence of extraterrestrials if FTL travel is allowed’ (ibid.: 216). Hence the apparent absence of ETI means either that we are unique, or that ETs, having discovered how to travel or communicate faster than light, can maintain a policy of non-interference.

One version of the Zoo Hypothesis merits further consideration, as it is a testable, if slightly implausible, response to Fermi’s Paradox. It is known as the ‘Peer Hypothesis’ and was developed by Paul Birch (1990).

The Peer Hypothesis

Birch hypothesizes a race of superETIs with no limits on their technology, who can travel from galaxy to galaxy, and can build with planets, black holes and stars, and manipulate the topology of space-time. These superbeings can manufacture their own space-times, create whole universes, and control them as we would control a small zoo. Could it be, asks Birch, that we actually live in such an engineered universe? The intelligence gap between these superETIs and us would be immense, no less than the gap theologians pose between God, who comprehends all, and mere mortals. Assuming only one creative intelligence behind the universe, it is likely that all intelligence made in its image will be roughly similar, argues Birch. Thus according to the Peer Hypothesis, ‘Many ETIs have been created, but their development has been deliberately arranged and guided so as to be roughly contemporaneous with our own’ (Birch, 1990: 3). This hypothesis allows for the SF scenario of thousands of ETI civilizations throughout the universe, but it predicts that Earth is neither advanced nor backward, but probably typical of the development of intelligence throughout the universe. Birch suggests that these broad similarities would be because the creators want a universe that would be eventful and interesting, as ‘history is at its most diverting when many groups interact, and when their capacities and interests are neither wildly disparate nor absolutely identical’ (ibid.). Of course, there may be many different reasons behind the creation of such a universe: intellectual challenge, entertainment, and so on.

If the range of development of intelligence and technology is roughly similar throughout the entire universe, there would be  enough diversity to enable different cultures to learn from each other after first contact, but not too much so as to preclude each other’s cognitive thresholds. Fermi’s Paradox would be resolved as, being similar to us, ETIs would not yet possess the technology required for colonization. But like us they will possess it soon, and then they will come. Moreover, after first contact others will follow soon, as the technological skills will not be that far apart. According to Birch, there are military implica-    tions with the Peer Hypothesis. Our peers would not be so powerful so as to easily defeat us, or too weak to be insignificant. Being similar to us they would come prepared and war should be considered a probable outcome.

How should we assess the Peer Hypothesis? Is it mainly a piece of imaginative SF and at variance with conventional theories regarding the origin of the

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universe? It requires a race possessing superintelligence with the power to create multiple universes. However far-fetched this may seem, it is not incompatible with theories concerning the origin of the universe and other universes too. John Gribbin (1994) has advanced the view that entire universes can be created out of black holes where matter has been squeezed to the point of becoming a singularity. When the singularity begins to expand, a new universe can be created which will exist in its own space-time dimensions. He suggests that there could be numerous such universes. Gribbin also considers that the squeezing operation could be an act of intention.

Bizarre though it may seem, if you could squeeze a kilogram of butter (or anything else) hard enough to make a black hole,  that black hole could be the seed of a new universe as big as, or bigger than, our own.

(Gribbin, 1994: 250)

If this were possible, a superintelligence may well have created several universes along the lines suggested by the Peer Hypothesis. As a matter of fact, multi-universe production may well be within our technological capability. According to Gribbin:

The technology is not so far-fetched, and would involve a super-powerful hydrogen bomb explosion somewhere in space at a safe distance from the Earth. It is even conceivable that our Universe was manufactured deliberately in this way as part of a scientific experiment by a technologically advanced race in another universe.

(ibid.)

Of course, the postulation of a race of superextraterrestrials, who can create and manipulate space-time, only raises further questions: where did they arrive from? Is there a race of supergeniuses behind them? Nevertheless, the Peer Hypothesis answers Fermi’s Paradox, and is consistent with evidence pertaining to the existence or non-existence of intelligence throughout the universe. But is it true? Is it likely? At least the hypothesis allows for these questions to be determined by evidential considerations and predictions. Given mankind’s present ability to communicate to the stars and the likelihood of interstellar travel by 2200 AD, then assuming Earth is typical of other habitable regions in the universe, with a similarly developing timescale, we should expect to meet our peers fairly soon.

Why come here when you can travel by information transfer?

Most versions of Fermi’s Paradox appeal to the likelihood of galactic coloniza-tion. Given the age of the galaxy, there has been ample opportunity for at least

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